2. Lives of the Lindsays

2.  The Cusseahs

(native Tartars)

In the spring of 1772, an eighteen year old Scotsman, Robert Lindsay, embarked for India on board the East Indiamen - Prince of Wales[1]. He landed in Calcutta in September 1772 and was soon appointed as an Assistant to the Accomptant[2] General in the Revenue Department.
By 1774, Warren Hastings was the Governor-General in India for more than 5 years. In early 1776 the interior province of Bengal was managed by Provincial Councils stationed at Patna, Moorshedabad and Dacca. He was appointed as an Assistant to the Revenue Chief of Dacca.

On the east side of the Brahmaputra river (as it enters present day Bangladesh) laid the province of Sylhet, which was under the Dacca Council. In the rainy season, seen at a distance of 40 miles, the lofty mountains behind Sylhet (the Khasi Hills) appeared as a dark cloud, intersected with perpendicular streaks of white - these in fact were large waterfalls.

The province of Sylhet was of considerable size, reaching from the east bank of the Brahmaputra, and extending to the high mountains which separated the East India Company’s territories of Bengal from China, as it was thought then. The intervening space was thinly inhabited and was occupied by tribes of independent Tartars (a reference to the Khasis). During the reign of the Moguls, a considerable military force was kept up at Sylhet for its defence. The troops were allotted land below the Khasi Hills for their military services.

In the Lives of the Lindsays, Robert Lindsay gives an account of the revenue of the country over which he presided. There was little silver or copper in circulation, and the circulating medium was entirely in small shells or cowries. The exchange rate then was 1 Rupee to 5120 cowries. The cowrie was in circulation throughout Bengal, and used in the purchase of smaller articles especially by the lower classes in society. He was perplexed as to how it came to become the only circulating medium in Sylhet, which was some 300 miles inland from the sea.

The nearest sources of these cowries were the Maldive and Nicobar islands, some 1,500 miles away from Sylhet. These were brought to Chittagong, from where they were dispersed all over the country, and eventually found their way to Sylhet. As this was relatively poorer country, the cowries were more suitable for the purchase of smaller articles instead of copper currency. In the months of October and November, when the waters subsided, there was a roaring trade in fish, which employed thousands and drew more cowries into the country than all other forms of commerce.

The use of cowries in Sylhet appears to have spread among the Khasis too. In every Khasi house was to be found the net bag which was made out of pineapple fibre[3]. These bags were of two sizes, the larger ones were used for keeping cowries, which was used as currency instead of coin. The smaller ones were used for the ever necessary betel-nut. In the Khasi divorce ceremony the husband and the wife each brought five cowries. The wife gave her five cowries to her husband, who placed them with his own five. He then returned the five cowries to his wife, together with his own five. The wife then returned the ten cowries to the husband who threw them on the ground. Gurdon also mentions that the Khasis also used cowries in divination.

The other peculiar aspect of Sylhet was the dried fish. Lindsay describes the enormous quantity of fish of every description left behind in the pools on the Sylhet plains when the waters subsided into their original channels. These were gathered by the locals and later exposed to dry in the sun, which gave off a most offensive smell. The dried fish were then buried for a period before being carried to the market, where they met with a ready sale.

Lindsay recounted that during this period the whole country was in a complete state of confusion. The fish-gatherers were without any principles and they merrily took advances from all and sundry, knowing full well that they could not possibly deliver to all, leading to general mayhem. He mentions that the hill people (referring to the people of the Khasi Hills) had another mode of preparing the fish for their own consumption. They roasted the fish gathered on the Sylhet plains, and carried them to the mountains in large quantities, as a delicacy for their chieftains (Syiems).

Lindsay was soon appointed the Resident and Collector of Sylhet. He received instructions to correspond with the Bengal Presidency directly, bypassing Dacca Council. Lindsay perceived this to be an ample reward for his activities. He made a hurried trip to Calcutta, some 600 miles away, travelling in an open boat, covered only by an awning.

This was a curious time in history when employees of the Company, besides drawing a salary, could also earn on the side, often in competition to the interests of the Company. He contemplated with delight the wide field of commercial speculation that opened before him. His annual pay as Resident did not exceed Rs.500, and therefore a fortune could only be acquired through his own business. According to him, the high country (referring to the Khasi Hills) had other resources deserving the attention of enterprising merchants.

These mountains produced various kinds of wood, adapted to boat and ship building, and also iron of excellent quality, which was little known in Sylhet at the time. The latter was brought down from the hills in lumps of adhesive sand, and was put into forges, producing an excellent malleable virgin iron, which according to him, was superior to any made in Europe by charcoal.

The undulating country below the Khasi Hills, was an abundant source of the finest elephants. There were other minor articles which were bought in considerable amounts, such as coarse muslins, ivory, honey, gums, and drugs for the European market. In the fruit season, there was an inexhaustible quantity of the finest oranges, found growing spontaneously in the Khasi Hills.

The Khasi Hills were also an inexhaustible source of the finest lime, and lower down the river (probably referring to the Surma) there was an abundance of fuel for burning it. This soon became a large source of income for Lindsay, and in fact became the foundation of his fortune. Chunam, or lime was the only great staple and steady article of commerce. According to him, nowhere else in Bengal, or even Hindostan for that matter, was the lime found so perfectly pure as in this region. Consequently, Calcutta was chiefly supplied from here.

The lime trade immediately attracted Lindsay’s attention and he sought ways to improve and extend the business. He noted that the trade was occupied by Armenians, Greeks, and “low Europeans”, however their market share was trifling. He had a significant advantage over them, as he had command over the currency, and soon he became central to the entire trade.

He bought lime in cowries, which on sale was converted to cash, enabling him to fulfil his contract, which otherwise would have been difficult. He had earlier begun to combine Company business with personal speculation in Dacca, where he took a large advance from a wealthy local businessman in return for delivering 20,000 pounds of Company salt bought with a Company officer’s prerogative at public auction. He made a large fortune by working the lime quarries and thus converting into cash the millions of cowries in which the land revenue of Sylhet was paid[4].

The Khasi Hills, from where the lime was sourced, however, was not situated within the East India Company’s jurisdiction. These belonged to independent chieftains (Syiems) of inhabitants of the high range (referring to the Khasis) which separated British possessions from the Chinese frontier (as it was thought then). His main objective was to obtain a lease of the lime-rock from these chieftains, but they demanded an interview with him to discuss the matter. A meeting was accordingly arranged at a place called Pondua, situated close below the Khasi Hills.

Lindsay provides a vivid description of the Khasi Hills:

“forming one of the most stupendous amphitheatres in the world. The mountain appears to rise abruptly from the watery plain, and is covered with the most beautiful foliage and fruit trees of every description peculiar to a tropical climate, which seem to grow spontaneously from the crevices of the lime-rock. A more romantic or more beautiful situation could not be found than the one then before me.

The magnificent mountain, full in view, appeared to be divided with large perpendicular stripes of white, which, upon a nearer inspection, proved to be cataracts of no small magnitude; and the river, in which the boats anchored, was so pure that the trout and other fishes were seen playing about in every direction; above all, the air was delightful when contrasted with the close and pestilential atmosphere of the putrid plain below, so that I felt as if transplanted into one of the regions of Paradise.”

The river he refers to is most probably the Dhamalia river in present day Bangladesh. This river is known as the Umngi in the Khasi Hills and its main source is near Sohiong. He imagined himself in the garden of Eden and was awoken from his reverie by the appearance of the locals dancing in the river banks before him. They came down from the mountains in large numbers dressed for war. According to Lindsay, their appearance was certainly martial, and compared favourably to his “native Highlanders when dressed in the Gaelic costume”. Lindsay thought that from their complexion, the war cries and the way they handled their weapons, they were not dissimilar to other mountaineers.

The chieftains organised a feast in his honour. Prior to the festivities, it was agreed that no business should be discussed till the following morning. Half a dozen pigs were roasted whole in a crude oven. A hole was dug in the ground and lined with banana leaves and then filled with hot stones. The pigs were then laid within and then covered with layers of hot stone and earth. The chiefs used their short daggers for carving and the banana leaves served as plates. Fermented liquor flowed freely and everyone had a good time till the festivities closed for the day.

This set the tone for negotiations the following day, and a large portion of the mountain that contained the lime quarries were allotted to Lindsay. The site had easy access to boats, which greatly facilitated transport. After the conclusion of the deal, several chiefs proposed to accompany Lindsay upriver to show him the quarries. He was forewarned of the dangers involved in the journey. About half a dozen canoes were used for the occasion. Each canoe had half a dozen men with paddles for smooth sailing and long poles to negotiate the rapids.

The first few miles were easy enough and the paddles sufficed. Gradually they got into rough waters and the first of the rapids appeared. These were easily overcome with the aid of the poles. A couple of miles further brought them to the second rapid which was more formidable. The crew was forced to push the boat under the banks and haul it up with the help of ropes. The third rapid greeted them with a tremendous roar, drowning all voices. Surprisingly, the waters soon became shallow and the crew jumped out, lifting the canoes over the stones.

They then approached the chunam or lime-rock which was washed by the rapid stream. Lindsay described the scene thus:

“a magnificent cataract was seen rolling over the adjoining precipice — the scenery altogether was truly sublime. The mountain was composed of the purest alabaster lime, and appeared, in quantity, equal to the supply of the whole world. When the canoes were loaded at the bottom of the hill, they appeared to descend the rapids with the rapidity of lightning; indeed it is often attended with danger, and even loss of life, when bringing down the stones.”

Lindsay appeared to be overwhelmed by the scenery, so much so that on his passage back down the river, he landed at a projecting point above Pondua, and expressed his desire to build a small cottage. This request was readily agreed to by the chiefs and he gave immediate orders to build his proposed villa. In later years, this was to become a beautiful retreat, which never failed to restore him, especially when exhausted by the “noxious vapours” during the floods. Lindsay, however, had other plans on his mind. The garden-wall was constructed with unusual strength to withstand possible attacks, until reinforcements could be got from Sylhet, some 25 miles away.

During his brief stay at his residence at Pondua, he saw a caravan arrive from the interior of the mountain, bringing on their shoulders the produce of the hills - coarse silks, fruits and iron, of excellent quality. The inhabitants descended the mountain by steps cut out in the precipice. The burdens were carried by the women in baskets supported by a belt across the forehead, the men walking by their side, protecting them with their arms. The elderly women had their mouths and teeth as black as ink from the constant use of the betel leaf mixed with lime. Lindsay noted that the young girls were not allowed to chew betel-nut until after their marriage. He also noted the strength of their arms and legs due to the constant exercise while ascending and descending these mountains.

Having established the groundwork of the lime trade on a firm footing, Lindsay returned to Sylhet. He appointed British agents at Calcutta and elsewhere, and fleets of boats now covered the rivers, and the trade kept five or six hundred men in constant employment. He specialized in limestone trades and in building riverboats, armed with swivel-guns, which carried his own goods as well as Company cash, goods, mail, soldiers, and officials.

After living and conducting business in their vicinity for twelve years, overall, Lindsay had a favourable impression of the Cusseah, or native Tartar as he called them, of these mountains. However, he had reasons to be cautious, and as a precautionary measure, he made arrangements for a “black officer” and twelve men to guard his house at Pondua. On one occasion, when returning to Sylhet, he had given directions to his “black officer” in charge to prevent inhabitants of the plains from soiling the beautiful grounds of his residence.

Unfortunately a few days later, a hill chief from a distant mountain came down and, taking it to be a favourable surrounding, he was found by the officer in the very act of offending, and was ordered to throw the “noxious deposit” into the river. The chief told him that as he was a total stranger, the offence would not be repeated. However, he would not act as directed, as it was against the laws of his religion. In response, the officer gave him a few heavy blows with his cane, and forced him to obey.

The chief immediately assumed his clothing of despair – a couple of yards of white cotton, with a hole in the middle for the head, and the hair thrown loose – and rushed out towards Pondua Bazar. Towards the evening the shrill war cries were heard in every direction, as the Cusseahs retired to the mountains. For several weeks not a man was seen below, and at last they descended in considerable force. The chieftain singled out the offending officer and they fought and both fell to the ground.

Lindsay had previous warning of what was to pass, and had reinforced his small garrison, but the enormities of the acts committed by the Cusseahs against the defenceless inhabitants of the plains became very serious. As a consequence, he was compelled to stop all communication and passage of provisions.

According to Lindsay, to retaliate was impossible, “for you might as well attack the inhabitants of the moon as those of the mountain above”. There were many instances of their killing and scalping prisoners, by cutting from the crown of the skull the size of half a crown, with skin and hair attached to it, which was preserved as a trophy. This kind of inconsistent warfare lasted for some time, when peace was restored, but Lindsay no longer had the same inducement to visit his favourite haunts on the hill.

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[1] Anecdotes of an Indian Life by the Hon. Robert Lindsay in Lives of the Lindsays – Volume 3, pages 147-226; or a memoir of the houses of Crawford and Balcarres, by Lord Lindsay to which are added, extracts from the official correspondence of Alexander sixth Earl of Balcarres, during the Maroon War; together with personal narratives by his brothers, the Hon. Robert, Colin, James, John, and Hugh Linsay; and by his sister, Lady Anne Barnard. Published by John Murray, Albemarle Street, London,1849.

[2]This was the term used at the time for an Accountant.

[3] PRT Gurdon.

[4] Ibid.